Introduction: Understanding Persuasion
Persuasion surrounds us in everyday life. Whether convincing you to buy a product, support a cause, or change your mind, people use rhetorical appeals—strategies designed to influence thinking. We already use these appeals naturally, but understanding how they work helps us use them more purposefully and makes our writing more compelling.
Purpose vs. Performance
Purpose is what your writing is trying to achieve—the underlying goal behind your communication.
Performance is what your writing actually says—the words on the page.
These two concepts don’t always align. When someone shivers and asks, “Are you cold?” the performance is a question about the other person’s comfort, but the purpose underneath is different: “I am freezing and want to turn up the heat.”
Purpose changes with every communication. It’s what the writer wants to achieve in a particular context with a particular audience. We develop our performance using rhetorical appeals as persuasive strategies. Breaking down these appeals and being strategic makes our communication more effective.
The Three Rhetorical Appeals
The three broad types of rhetorical strategies are appeals to logos, ethos, and pathos. These terms date back to the Greek philosopher Aristotle. Each appeal connects to a way people make decisions or change their minds.
Appeals to Logos (Logical Appeals)
Appeals to logos are common in academic and research writing. Appealing to logos means using reasoning, facts, and evidence to persuade. Most people feel pressure to change their minds when someone offers useful facts and connects them clearly to an argument.
Appeals to logos can be used responsibly by connecting research or statistics to appropriate responses. However, people can also use facts and data misleadingly, suggesting connections that don’t exist.
Data Literacy is the ability to critically analyze the circumstances that created a fact or statistic. Strong data literacy helps you read and use appeals to logos effectively.
Consider this advertising example: “Five out of five dentists surveyed say our gum is good for your teeth.” This appeals to logos by citing research. However, the company could have paid the dentists or surveyed only dentists who already liked the product. This statistic warrants investigation to determine whether the survey provides compelling evidence or is questionable.
Appeals to Ethos (Appeals to Credibility)
Appeals to ethos ask people to believe what you say because of who you are. In daily life, we believe facts from people we trust. For strangers, we grant credibility based on expertise, experience, and demonstrable knowledge.
Appeals to ethos often strengthen logical claims. You might ask readers to trust a statistic because a well-known researcher evaluated it. However, people with one kind of expertise may try using their credibility on unrelated topics.
Social media influencers exemplify this. They hope popularity will give them credibility to sell products in sponsored content, expecting followers who trust their fashion choices will also trust advice about unrelated products.
Scrutinize appeals to ethos by asking whether you trust this person and whether they’re experts on this particular subject. Research their credentials and past claims. If arguments boil down to “do this because I said so,” that’s weak argumentation.
Appeals to Pathos (Appeals to Emotion)
Appeals to pathos target emotion and shared values. They can powerfully bring people to a side but can also lead readers astray, letting emotions override actual goals or values.
Political advertisements often cite one or two statistics, then layer on impressive images, patriotic music, and emotion-filled voiceovers—not to strengthen statistics but to sweep viewers away with emotion.
Emotional appeals get a bad reputation because emotions may lead us away from evidence-based decisions. However, some people need emotional connection to engage with a project or purpose. Think of appeals to pathos as another way to support arguments. A well-reasoned paper that’s just a dry list of facts may not get finished, interfering with persuasion.
Combining Rhetorical Appeals
Understanding how to combine rhetorical appeals allows us to improve persuasive writing. We can strengthen a point through emotional connection, supporting facts, and credibility on the subject.
Some worry that being strategic means manipulating people. However, manipulation can happen whether we notice persuasion or simply get swept up in charisma. Persuasion can serve good or bad ends, so working strategically isn’t inherently negative.
We should develop habits of critically analyzing rhetorical appeals and asking how we’re being persuaded. The purpose behind the performance really matters.
Three Techniques for Critical Analysis
Technique 1: Presentation or Purpose?
Examine texts with this question: Does the presentation align with the purpose? When you see what the text is actually doing, you’ll be better equipped to make changes ensuring you achieve your purpose or understand what a writer wants you to take away.
Technique 2: Careful There, Logos!
Identify where you or an author appeal to logos and note the connections. Check whether logical appeals are warranted and connected to the purpose. Remember that audiences tire of one type of appeal repeatedly. Combine logos with ethos and pathos where appropriate.
Technique 3: Be True to Your Audience
Your audience may be more open to certain appeals. Scientists may need extra logos with data. Strangers may need your credentials before trusting your argument. Think through what most appeals to your audience, then revise to include what matters most to them.
Conclusion
We all use rhetorical appeals but can improve in aligning appeals with our purposes. When we focus on what our audience values while understanding our own purposes, we can use logos, ethos, and pathos to create more convincing arguments.